The history of textiles in India can be traced back to the earliest civilisations, as evidenced by archeological remains, including those of the Indus Valley civilization. The indigenous silk moth from Harappa suggests the use of silk in India as early as 3000 BCE. Dye residues of madder-dyed purple, wrapped around a pot dating back to 3000 B.C.E. were discovered near Mohenjo-Daro and point to the early traditions of spinning and weaving cotton. The famous stone sculpture of the ‘The Priest King’ depicts a trefoil patterned cloth draped around him. The early start of textile traditions provided the base on which India became a major textile leader for the world.
The Vedic period provides a rich insight into the different professions, as well as the raw materials required for certain activities. The Rigveda describes weavers as vasovaya, we know that both men and women practiced weaving during the early Vedic period, the male weavers were known as vaya, while the female weavers were known as vayitri. The early Vedic period refers to vasa and adhivasa as the lower and upper garments. There are numerous hymns in the later Vedic literature that praise the ‘well-clad’ deities, and also include nivi, as a form of garment. The Vedic literature also describes various embroideries or pesas, which were predominantly used by the dancers. The earliest direct evidence for printed fabric comes from the Apastamba Srauta Sutra, which includes the word ‘Chitranta’.
Mahabharata, the Sanskrit epic mentions numerous textile traditions that were gifted either in dowry or as gifts to the feudatory lords. There are references to chitra vastra, and mani chira in the epic, both of which are used to denote printed and pearl-embroidered fabrics respectively.
In 300 B.C., Arthashastra, a text written by Chanakya, explained the significance of textiles in both domestic and foreign trade. To guarantee the plausibility of the story, the author gave lengthy accounts of the many fabrics that he touched upon: woolen, cottony, and flax textiles. It was also mentioned that weaving was a woman’s occupation, and their wages depended on the thickness of the yarn. Studying the nature of textile production in the past, one can note that there was an elaborate industry that was an essential part of the ancient Indian economy.
The Didarganj Yakshi depicting the dhoti wrap; c. 300 BC; Bihar Museum
Ancient form of Churidar worn during the Gupta period; c. 300 AD; National Museum
Indian textiles, by 100 C.E. had found a good market beyond the subcontinent. Persians admired the bright color of Indian textiles. Indian muslin called "nebula," "gangetika,” and “venti” became popular in Rome. Imports included silk, obtained mainly from China, though many other goods were also shipped to Rome.
The Buddhist literature also mentions the numerous fabrics that were used by the people, such as Khoman or linen, kappasikam or cotton and kosseyam or silk. The Jataka tales also mention spinning and weaving as specific professions, as well as the numerous tools that are utilized in its creation.
Buddha in Gandhara school of Art , 1st century CE.
During the Gupta period, one can see the social stratification through textiles, while fine cotton was used by the elites, coarse fabrics were used by the poor. Kalidas, a Sanskrit poet during the Gupta period refers to a fine cloth with goose pattern as the dress of Parvati.
There is evidence of the highly specialized technical skills of embroidery, Bandhani (tie and dye) and Patolu (Ikat weaving) that can be found in the numerous cave paintings of Ajanta in 600 C.E. These textile traditions of India can also be corroborated by the literary texts of the ancient Indian kingdoms. For example, the Harshacharita, the biography of Harsha Vardhana, speaks in detail about the numerous textiles that were gifted as dowry to the princess of the Vardhana dynasty. It also includes notes on how the textiles were prepared.
Bandhani blouse, Ajanta cave painting, image courtesy V & A Museum, London
Bandhani dress in Jain scriptures, Image courtesy V & A Museum London
The northwestern region of India saw the tyranny of the Turkish and Afghan forces between 1200 CE to 1500 CE. During this period, there was hybridization of Indian and Persian textile traditions: The region of Gujarat and Bengal marked the Muslim dominance in the trade. In the 16th and 17th centuries, European monarchs, including the Portuguese and the British were keen to establish trading relations with the Mughals and other rulers of South Asia.
The Mughal period ranging from 1500 CE to 1700 CE was overall a productive period for Indian textiles. According to the available records, the Mughals established political stability, economic growth and the effectiveness of the administrative system to facilitate the growth of admirable levels of workmanship or craftsmanship. Records suggest that hand-knotted carpets were high quality, particularly during Jahangir’s time, and the Mughal carpets were well appreciated across the globe. Artisans and craftsmen working under the patronage of the Mughals would include specialized workshops that worked on embroidery, goldsmithery, painting, stitching and even silk weaving. The Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French traders took large consignments of Indian painted and embroidered bedspreads, and wall hangings to Europe.
British colonization in the mid-19th century marked a critical turn for India’s textile industry. The Industrial Revolution in England further proved to be disastrous for the traditional Indian handicraft goods which could not compete with British merchandise, especially textiles which flooded the Indian market. By this point, India had lost its dominance in textile production and processing.
However, during the early part of the twentieth century, there was a definite resurgence of the Indian textile industry, largely due to the Swadeshi movement spearheaded by Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi’s call for the boycott of British goods and supporting local industries was a major boost to the textile industry in India. There were some difficulties encountered by the artisans during this period, as the traditional methods were either too time-consuming or lost during the long history of colonialism. Yet, the tradition of textile weaving, embroidering, painting and processing survived in some form or the other. The textile tradition of India is extensive and several techniques and styles are still practiced in this country.
The use of pigments on the textiles from India may be dated back to as early as the 14th century. The fabrics were gorgeously ornamented in Gujarat and Rajasthan; and are correlated with miniature paintings, which emerged during the early medieval period. A well-studied specimen of painted cloth is the Pichwais, used as devotional backdrops for the image of Shrinathji in the temples
Daan Leela interwined with Shrinathji Darshan in Pichwai by Shehzaad Ali Sherani
The art of textile manufacturing in India has been around for almost 2600 years and dye-painted textiles are considered to be one of the most complex and one of the oldest forms of exotic textiles. These fabrics were very popular in Europe during the 17th century since they were highly coloured, durable and immensely suitable for draping.
In order to obtain a coloured cotton fabric, natural dyes were used along with mordants to fix the dye on the fabric. The dyeing method like Kalamkari was particularly used in South India and was in use during the entire eighteenth century. This technique involved the use of a bamboo stick (kalam) which was dipped into an iron solution to achieve a black outline, alum was also used for red mordant. Then followed by a dyeing process where wax was used on certain areas to avoid losing the details on those regions. Over a period of time, the process of Kalamkari has evolved and the wax process is no longer in common use.
Tree of Life: Kalamkari painting by Harinath.N
Resist dyeing is one of the methods of dyeing where the yarn or fabric is covered with a gelatinous substance such as mud or gum, or is knitted or sewed with another thread before it is dyed with a solution. The sections that are covered show a difference from the dye, hence the emergence of the elaborate work on a background of color. Some of the traditional resist-dye techniques include Ikat, Bandhani and Leheriya which are the three primary resist-dyeing techniques prominent in India.
Ikat is an ancient process of fabric designing in which threads are first planned into certain designs before dyeing. This way of seaming also allows for very complex patterns to be embroidered directly on the garment materials. Patola, the Patan double ikat fabric of Gujarat, is considered to be extremely sophisticated and has dense graphics, and beautiful colors. This fabric occurred as a prestigious good in India and was much valued in Southeast Asia in the seventeenth century. Patola was exported to the Philippines, Malaysia, Borneo, Thailand and Indonesia to be used in wedding ceremonies and temples.
Handwoven IKAT SILK STOLE
Another type of resist-dyeing technique is Bandhani which is said to have originated in the 6th century, as corroborated by the cave paintings of Ajanta. Bandhani textiles were always brightly coloured, and the tradition continues to the present day. Jamnagar acts as the center for dyeing and marketing of fabric while Kutch alone produces the famous Bandhani fabric. This traditional art is practiced by both Hindu and Muslim Khatri families, and the women of the households weave the patterns while the men saturate the cloth with natural dyes. Bandhani textiles are mainly used in sarees, odhani, shawls and pagri; though they could be incorporated in any dress material or article of clothing.
Block printing dates back to as early as 1500 BCE. Block printed fabrics of Indian origin, commonly known as Fustat fabrics, were found in Egypt and were regarded as superior quality fabrics.
Due to the reduction of influence of the Mughals, and the onset of British colonialism, many textile traditions were no longer used. Considering all the difficulties and variations over centuries, India’s textile tradition continues to be one of the significant components of the country’s cultural identity. From archeological studies, the success of cotton weaving in the Indus Valley civilization to the export of Indian textiles all over the world during the Mughal era, and even the use of ‘Swadeshi’ textiles during the British rule, Indian textiles have always stood the test of time.
Today, ethnic textiles of India are popular and have enthralled the people of the country and also those from other parts of the world. The richness of the techniques, from painting with pigments to resist dyeing and block printing is a testimony to the heritage of creativity and the craft that is an inherent characteristic of textiles in India. It is now important to sustain and promote these traditional arts, to continue the legacy of Indian textiles into the future.
Baluchar Saree
- History of Indian textile/Calico museum of textiles
- Indian Textile/ISBN-978-3-7913-4931-2
- Khawani. "The Heritage of India: Indian Traditional Textile." International Journal of Science Technology and Management 6, no. 06 (June 2017). ISSN (O) 2394-1537, ISSN (P) 2394-1529. Accessed August 11, 2024. www.ijstm.com.
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